Effects of Oestrogen Changes

Effects of Oestrogen Changes Executive function is influenced by oestrogen- in the brain the area associated to executive functions, memory and attention is the prefrontal cortex (Pettit, 2013). As during the female lifespan the levels of oestrogen changes, and the executive functions experiences some issues when these levels are low, for example after childbirth and around menopause (Craig et al., 2008). Although the low levels of oestrogen after childbirth and lactation are temporary, after the menopause these levels do not increase naturally. As the world population experience longer life span, some diseases are estimated to increase with age. One of the most common type of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, which mostly occur in later life (Lephart Hedges, 2003). Alzheimer’s disease affects the working memory, attention planning and other executive functions; it is a progressive disease and it is considered by deteriorating cognitive deficits, affective disturbances, delusion, and on the later stages, it also start motor and sensory problems (Lephart Hedges, 2003). Most of the patients with Alzheimer’s disease showed episodic memory loss, semantic memory loss and depressed mood (Ka Birkha, 2000). In the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient, the episodic memory loss is related to severe pathological changes within hippocampal and parahippocampal structures of the medial temporal lobes (Hyman et al., 1984 as cited in Ka Birkha, 2000) and to a deficiency in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Coyle et al., 1983 as cited in Ka Birkha, 2000). In 1975, a pioneer study in rats found that oestrogen upregulates the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the rats brain (Luine, Khylchevskaya, McEwen, 1975). After ten years, another study confirmed that the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the medial aspect of the horizontal diagonal band nucleus, the frontal cortex, and cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) of the dorsal hippocampus were increased after the administration of oestrogens (Luine, 1985). Furthermore, the human nucleus basalis of meynert (a telencephalic structure that provides most of the acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex) in Alzheimer’s disease has been noticed the upregulation of oestrogen receptors (Behl, 2002). Thus, many studies suggest the use of oestrogens as a treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, as in fact, oestrogens increases the activity of acetylcholine, promotes the growth of neurons and their connections, enhances blood flow in the brain and seems to constrain the toxic effect of ÃŽ ²-amyloid (â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease: recent progress and prospectsPart II.,† 2001). However, the prominent reason in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease with oestrogens is the low rate of Alzheimer’s disease in women who after menopause had used the hormone replacement therapy (â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease: recent progress and prospectsPart II.,† 2001). Despite of this fact, some studies showed that the use of oestrogen replacement therapy (ORT) had no improvement of the cognition and no halts the degeneration of women with Alzheimer’s disease (Larkin, 2000). Because of the changes of oestrogens during the women lifespan, some studies suggest that there is a critical time related to start the hormonal replacement therapy to have an effect in Alzheimer’s disease (Brinton, 2004; Ka Birkha, 2000; Pettit, 2013). Thus, oestrogen changes is not only affects women with Alzheimer’s disease, b ut also the executive functions in all women during their lifespan. Oestrogen is commonly known as female sex hormone, and there are three types of oestrogen, the 17ÃŽ ²-oestradiol, oestrone and oestriol (Darlington, 2002). There are two other types of sex hormones, the male sex hormone – testosterone, and the pregnancy hormone – progesterone. The release of these hormones are controlled by the hypothalamus through the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone which acts on the anterior pituitary gland to stimulate the release of the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone (Darlington, 2002). During the female lifespan the levels of oestrogens change, such as menstrual cycle, pregnancy and menopause (Pettit, 2013). The menstrual cycle occurs during puberty and last until menopause, except during pregnancy. The ovulation occurs when there is a peak in the release of luteinising hormone, this hormone regulates the secretion of oestrogen, which in conjunction with the follicle-stimulating hormone control the development of t he follicle (Darlington, 2002). The oestrogen levels reaches the peak during ovulation phase (mid cycle) and the bottom during the menstrual phase (bleeding), during menstrual cycle (Pettit, 2013). In the pregnancy the levels of oestrogens also gradually change, they reach a peak by the third trimester of the pregnancy, and this peak will be the highest level of oestrogen in the female lifespan. On the other hand, the lowest level of oestrogen in a female lifespan will be the menopause, when the levels of oestrogens decline both in the brain and in the body (Melton, 2000 as cited in Pettit, 2013). The differentiation of the female physiology is this cyclic rise and fall of hormones levels (Darlington, 2002). Furthermore, oestrogen is not only responsible for reproductive functions, it has a role on the peripheral and central nervous systems, and it also affects the development, growth, differentiation, maturation and function of several tissues in the body (Behl, 2002). Some studies had investigated the differences between men and women and concluded that most of the differences in the brain mechanism and structure is related to oestrogens; the structural, cellular, and molecular differences in the brain is called true dimorphisms (Gillies McArthur, 2010). The main areas of the brain that are affect by these differences are the hippocampus, amygdala and cortex, which are responsible for the memory and cognition (Kelly et al., 1999; Baron-Cohen et al., 2005 as cited in Gillies McArthur, 2010). Additionally, oestrogen receptors are also found in astrocytes and other types of glial cell; in the hypothalamus, the amygdala, the preoptic area, and the forebrain are the highest levels of oestrogen receptors expression; and the oestrogen receptors density is greater in the hypothalamus than in extra hypothalamic regions, for instance the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex (Behl, 2002). To investigate how the fluctuations of oestrogen affect both the neuropsychological and neurophysiological parameters, and to visualise changes during the menstrual cycle, a study has use a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image cortical activation patterns associated with cognitive and motor activation. The results showed that in both neuropsychological tasks blood oestrogen level had a profound effect on the size but not on the lateralisation or the localisation of cortical activation patterns; moreover a noticeable increase in perfusion in cortical areas involved in both cognitive tasks was noticed during the oestrogen peak in the female brain (Dietrich et al., 2001). Another study also investigate the oestrogen fluctuations during the menstrual phase, the results suggested that when the oestrogen are in their peak, some regions show enhanced activation; one of these regions was the cortical region, which is has a connection with auditory and linguistic functions, w hich mean that additional functional networks are recruited (Schà ¶ning et al., 2007). Craig and collegues (2008) stated that women in specific times of their lives, (for instance childbirth, and around menopause), commonly complain of memory problems, which are related with oestrogen changes; their results showed that a biological justification for previous reports might be the higher oestrogen levels, which is associated with improvement of verbal memory performance during the normal menstrual cycle. Therefore, the main problem of the oestrogen changes is the menopause, where the oestrogens levels drastically fall. Evidence from a study showed an executive dysfunction in a women at menopause without hormonal replacement therapy, the results also suggested that the interruption of cognitive processes is promoted by the frontal lobes rather than the hippocampus; additionally, oestrogen improves the execution of working memory tasks and the prefrontal cortex is essential for intact working memory (Keenan, Ezzat, Ginsburg, Moore, 2001). A longitudinal study showed significant differences in regional cerebral blood flow during the memory tasks between women on ORT and women without, also women on ORT had better performance on neuropsychological tests of figural and verbal memory (Resnick, Maki, Golski, Kraut, Zonderman, 1998). Hence many studies had showed the improvement of executive functions, memory and attention on the ORT for women in menopause, however there is a crucial timin g to start the ORT, the critical period hypothesis. The oestrogen need to be taken when neurological health is still intact to have positive effects, before or at the time of menopause, otherwise if the replacement start after menopause, it can have harmful effects (Rettberg, Yao, Brinton, 2014). In conclusion, oestrogen is very important to the best functioning of the female brain. Executive functions, memory and attention are especially related to the levels of oestrogen. During the female lifespan the levels of oestrogens naturally change, reaching the peak on the third trimester of pregnancy and the lowest levels at menopause. Many studies showed the importance of the oestrogen replacement therapy, not only to alleviate the menopause symptoms but especially on the improvement of cognition. However there is the critical period hypothesis, which suggest that the time to start the ORT is before or at the time of the menopause to have the beneficial effect of it. Although there is a relation between low oestrogen levels and Alzheimer’s disease, evidences showed that the use of OTR in Alzheimer’s patients had no improvement. Finally, oestrogens and time are together, and the crucial timing to start the OTR can modify a life, the importance of future researches in this area is to provide a better future for women and maybe decrease the numbers of Alzheimer’s patients.

One Year in a Life of Crime Essay

There are many contributing factors that can lead to living a life of crime, totally unaware of how self-satisfying actions can negatively affect the people around you. The show HBO’s America Undercover â€Å"One Year in a Life of Crime†, is a perfect example of how there can be many factors that will lead you down a path of self destruction. But in the end it is the relationships we have with our parents, family and friends that ultimately shape the type of person we are and affect the decisions that we make. A contributing factor is something that is partly responsible for a development or something that lead to the cause of something else. If we can identify the contributing factors to an undesirable situation that we may be in, then we can learn to avoid them in the future. Or we can even learn from other people’s mistakes. The show â€Å"One Year in a Life of Crime† could be very beneficial for a younger audience to identify contributing factors that lead you down the wrong path in life. Maybe if the thieves’ in the show could have viewed something like this at an earlier time in their life, things might have turned out different for them. Rationalizing and wishful thinking is a contributing factor that prevents the thieves’ from thinking realistically about their future. Rationalization, also known as making excuses, is a way to devise self-satisfying but incorrect reasons for one’s behavior. To not see reality for what is it. We all do this from time to time but the individuals in the show seem to rationalizing everything as a way to justify the bad choices they have made. Rob rationalizes his stealing in the scene where we meet his father for the first time. Rob’s father Ed works all week long and only brings home $80, which Rob describes as peanuts. To survive, you have to make extra money, is one way Rob justifies his stealing. In his mind, if he didn’t steal, his family couldn’t survive. In many scenes we hear Rob wishing for this and wishing for that. I wish for a big business so I can make a million dollars and if only I could get some money together to buy hot dog truck. Rob is unwilling to work hard to achieve any of his goals. Fred, who is Rob’s mentor in regards to shoplifting, is even worse when it comes to rationalizing he’s behavior. He can’t believe his old lady left with their little girl after he promised to stop getting high but then couldn’t follow through with his promise. He tells an old friend he wants to stop doing drugs and stealing but it’s just too much for him to handle now that his old lady has left him. Rationalizing helps them justify their own lazy attitude towards hard work and making an honest living. The prevailing attitude towards stealing instead of working is another contributing factor that keeps the thieves’ from getting ahead in life. Easy money for little effort, such as shop-lifting, can be very attractive to some people and they will choose this life style. But the way life works is the more you put into something the more you will get out. If you’re willing to work hard and not give up, there is a good chance you will be successful in whatever you choose to do. When we look at Rob we can see he is always looking for easy money. Rob can’t believe his father works for such little money when there are other ways to make a living. He thinks his father is foolish. When Rob was working for a neighborhood mechanic he had saved over a thousand dollars but thought the job wasn’t paying enough. In his mind, the amount of time and work he needed to put-in, didn’t equal the pay he was receiving. Stealing is easier and doesn’t require a full day’s work. It’s hard to say no to easy money when there is only a small chance of getting caught and if you do get caught, then the punishment is light or non-existent. When a city does not have the resources to deal with a large volume of crime, the justice system can seem like a revolving door for the criminals. If the smaller criminals have to be overlooked because the system is swamped with major crimes, then the threat of jail time for shoplifting looses its power. Time after time we see both Fred do little jail time for his crimes. The first time me meet Fred, he’s accidentally been released from jail after only doing 60 days of a one year sentence. He’s been out of jail for one day and he’s already back to shoplifting. Four months later Fred is arrested for Grand Larceny and Vehicular Homicide. He uses an alias along with a phony I.D. to hide his extensive criminal record and ends up out of jail in just three weeks after plea-bargaining down to minor charges as a â€Å"first offender†. Fred was responsible for the death of someone and because of an overwhelmed justice system he is set free. After you get away with something like this how much of a deterrent is the law when it comes to shoplifting? Not much to Fred because just three months later he’s arrested for stealing silverware and end up in jail for six months. Of course each time we see the thieves’ stealing they are always with a friend, an accomplice, someone who thinks and acts the same way they do. Enabling is a larger contributing factor as to why our thieves live the life that they do. An enabler is a person who, through their actions, allows someone else to behave in a destructive way. Enabling/reinforcing negative behavior by lying, ignoring or covering up for someone not only allows negative behavior to continue but also slows down the process of learning to be responsible for the consequences of their actions. The most common example in the show is the relationship the thieves have with each other. Rob is mentored by Fred in the ways of shoplifting and along with their friend Mike, reinforces their life style as being just and the only way they can survive in the world. Rob’s wife Angela is the perfect example of an â€Å"enabler†. Throughout the year that the show takes place we see Angela enabling Rob to continuing stealing. All she wants is for Rob to marry her and if stealing is the only way for Rob to make money, then she will support whatever decisions he makes. At the end of the show we see Rob has become a drug addict and Angela is still with him even though she hates what Rob is doing to himself. She would rather say nothing then confront him. It’s a lot less work being an enabler then it is confronting Rob and trying to help him. Mike’s mother is another example of how enabling has a negative impact on learning to be responsible for one’s own actions. She bails Mike out of jail and losses the bail money because her son takes off. I’m guess here, but I would bet she knows where he is hiding out and her only reaction is to be indifferent to Mike decision which just cost her $750. The relationships we have with our friends and family play a strong role on how we think and the decision we make. The most important contributing factor as to why the thieves are in their situation has to do with how they were raised. The values they were taught and relationship they have with their parents. We can see Rob is in a pattern of self-destructive behavior and one of the biggest influences is his father. From the show we find out that Rob’s father is an alcoholic, would hit him and also throw out Rob’s toys. Rob even describes a scene where his father rips apart one of his favorite toys, a stuffed bunny rabbit. Here we can see why Rob might think it is ok steal. He learned from his father that if you are strong or smart enough to impose your will on someone then it is ok to take what you want. In Rob’s eyes this is how the world works. This is what his father did to him so he is repeating the same behavior when he shop-lifts. We can only guess at the relationship Fred has with his parents but we know that one of his uncles was a drug addict and Fred witness his un cle taking drugs. It’s a good possibility Fred’s family didn’t discourage drug use or educate him in regards to the negative impact drugs will have on your life. From the time we are born we start to soak in our environment. We start to learn from everything around us. How we act socially mainly comes from the observations and interactions we have with our parents. We learn how to speak, how to ask for things and how to interact with others. When we are children the most important relationship we will have is with our parents and this can greatly affect our adolescences and adulthood. Our role models in life can help shape who we will become. If we see from our parents that hard work and following the rules doesn’t get you very far then we might have an attitude that working hard isn’t the way to go. Without good role models the odd are stacked against us and some individuals will take the easy road of a thieves’ life style. We can change our behavior later in life but it can be a difficult process and most people are not even aware that a change is needed.

Ethics in Criminal Justice Administration - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1658 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Ethics Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Tags: Criminal Justice Essay Did you like this example? Ethics in Criminal Justice Administration Analysis The model of due process meet ups the criterion for ethical and professional standards that are in the criminal justice system. The model departs to demonstrate that individuals in the criminal justice system are themselves conducting in an ethical and professional manner that sustain the rights of all persons concerned from prisoners to co-workers in the criminal justice system. Model of Due process is a kind of system of justice which is founded on the belief that a inhabitant has a few complete rights and cannot be dispossessed of liberty of life or property devoid of proper legal safeguards and procedures. The due process in general needs justice in proceedings of government In instance an individual that is indicted with an offense has the right to advocate, right to a quick trial and to be heard and represented by an legal representative even though they cannot pay for one (USLegal (2001-2015)). Model of Crime control stress on reducing the crime in society in the course of enlarged prosecutorial and police powers, and the model of due process spotlights on personal and rights and liberties it is related with restricting the government powers (Uslegal: (2001-2015)). The model of crime control pursues a few of the similar features as the due process however does take an additional straight line to the process. Crime control tackles with additional organizational management and with the management of the acts of how the employees of the precise group similar to law enforcement. Law enforcement even though they are on or off duty they have got held a great deal superior standard as against others that do not seize that sort of position. For instance law enforcement officers are needed to endure background checks, drug screening, tests of physical abilities, and mental screening. Ethics and Professional behavior is a significant feature as the criminal justices administration is seized to precise standards in the ways how they behave in the direction of others in and out of the eyes of public. Criminal justice administration is position to the test on a daily basis when dealing with the public and personnel. Police officers have to enclose and exhibit good ethics and to utilize professional behavior always. The public perceives law enforcement as something that is there to aid them when urgent help is required in the communities. There are criminal justice system members that are in command of creating the tough and critical decisions every day who are taking the orders similar to law enforcement officers that have an effect on persons lives. Critical thinking skills are significant when it approaches to constructing decisions in an ethical and professional manner. A lot of features of the criminal justice system depend on skills of critical thinking with which they employ on everyday basis since their lives may depend on it. Law enforcement have g ot to make use of critical thinking to establish if a law has been infringed, how to act in response, and when to construct an arrest (Ozyasar, n.d.). Good results are inclined to take place concerning critical thinking when contracting with ethics and professional behaviors. When Law enforcement officers do not succeed to think critically they are inclined to react excessively and act in response in an insistent manner or too speedily devoid of thinking regarding the likely outcomes of their actions. Courts depend on the means how officers carry out themselves in the field by means of their skills of critical thinking to assist them in the avoidance of criminals getting off since their rights were infringed in a few way. The administration of court system scrutinizes several information and has got to initially think critically prior to formulating a decision. Courts have got to consider all the facts and glance at all features of the case prior to they come to a decision, criti cal thinking skills approach into play since the court desire to make certain the facts presented are the facts of the truth. Critical thinking should approach first consecutively for the court system to take action fairly and in a proficient manner. The corrections and parole department rely on their critical thinking skills to help them in the assessment and evaluation of persons who they are in charge of supervising of their progress, and work that is carried out within the facility they function in. Parole and Corrections officers perceive risky situations on a daily basis the means that they contract with these circumstances need skills of critical thinking and sustain professional and ethical behavior whilst doing so. In the administration of criminal justice even though all have to agree on ethical and professional standards there are a few that might have discrepancies in professional and ethical standards on occasion ones beliefs have got to be place aside to construct t he right call. Even though it senses wrong when pursuing the law occasionally everybody has diverse ethics they have got to set aside their beliefs and construct the right decision in spite of their feelings in the circumstances. Agents of Law enforcement are position into circumstances that might need them to make use of their critical thinking skills in addition to ethical and professional standards when operational with others on an everyday basis. Law enforcement might require handling stressful situation and requiring them to employ their skills of ethical and professional subsequently they are capable to carry out their job as needed. I do believe that there is a requirement for additional training on skills of critical thinking, professional and ethical behaviors in law enforcement since they are countenanced with several difficult challenges whilst they are functioning. Law enforcement officers can be more prepared if they are trained in being competent to critically t hink regarding the circumstances and yet be professional and maintain their ethical standard whilst dealing with definite sorts of demanding situation. Ethical, Professional, and critical thinking is connected to the process of decision making that is exhibited by persons who are in a place of serving and safeguarding the communities similar to law enforcement. I propose a law enforcement employees training seminar not only for unethical behaviors or behaviors by individuals perceived in law enforcement other than also how the acts of law enforcement exhibit undesired professional and ethical behaviors on and off duty in the eyes of public. Law enforcement ethical training can help them to voluntarily familiar with an ethical dilemma or predicament, discover a variety of options to tackle the definite involved issue, construct a ethically and sane sound decision of which alternative to choose, take timely action founded on that choice, and acknowledge responsibility for the resul t (Gleason, 2006). Conducting the law enforcement agents seminar might assist them to better prepare to make use of critical thinking whilst in demanding situation, The seminar would assist to stress how significant critical thinking and maintaining calm in a demanding situation is whilst upholding ethical and professional standards. In addition teaching and Training law enforcement agents on how greatly authority they have and how to finely make use of it to assist individuals in need or in opposition to those who have infringed the law merely since with the present situation in the law enforcement officers have been observed using extreme force with suspects and sourcing injuries and also deaths. As well officer ethical training will help them to make the right decision and also they will learn how to critically think beneath demanding situation. An officer dealing with precise circumstances might require placing their personal opinions and feelings aside to carry out what is in t he finest interest of the person at the instance. I do suppose that an additional area of interests would be the ethical and professional treatment of co-workers in the labor force on how to appropriately treat others they effort with, with the respect they be worthy of even though there is pressure amid co-workers and the community. On and off duty officers of Law enforcement must act ethically and professional to serve everybody in the community. Law enforcement agents must exhibit role model behavior to the members in the community always. An additional region to be stressed in the ethical training seminar that officers should on no account accept bribes or gifts from it member and work for favors.. The seminar would as well stress how greatly honesty is to while serving in the community with trust of people and devoid of trust the community will not sustain the law enforcement department. Law enforcement efficiency relies upon community trust and respect (FDLE, n.d.). Poli ce officers are regarded to maintain a higher standard of behavior by society, since they are wardens of the trust of public and are given power to apply force and get rid of constitutional privileges when legally justified. They take an oath of office, are anticipated to obey with professional code of ethics, and are focus to a variety of rules, laws, and regulations (Gleason, 2006). The seminar training would be the majority useful for all officers of law enforcement. They must be present at the seminar training to learn how skills of critical thinking, ethical and professional standards are significant for those who operate in law enforcement. Maintaining Ethical and professional behaviors and Critical thinking are expected out of law enforcement since of the authority officers hold in the communities and to educate them how to lever demanding situation whilst still sustain professional, and ethical behaviors to assist maintaining the community feeling secure. References H. Ozyasar,(n.d.).Why is ethics important in criminal justice.Retrieved from https://www.ehow.com/about_6386561_ethics-important-criminal-justice_.html T. Gleason,(2006).Ethics training for police.Retrieved from https://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_archarticle_id=1054issue_id=112006 The University of Phoenix. (2015). Criminal Justice Administration Capstone. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix, 484 website. USLegal: Crime Control Model Law Legal Definition.(2001-2015). USLegal: Due Process Model Law Legal Definition.(2001-2015). Don’t waste time! 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Dangers and Need for Preventing Drunk Driving - 862 Words

Driving require a variety of skills and technique that often changes. The Driver must maintain a good alertness so they can react quickly in spontaneous situation in the road and avoid road traffic crash. Road traffic crash has become main causes of injury and death in world. This accident may result up to the severe injury depends on the situation and reasons of the accident. One of the most happened reason that cause the traffic crash is the consumption of alcohol drink (Green, 2013). Drinking habit make the driver lost their concentration and affect their skills to drive and may increase the risk of crash. Some safety equipment have been offered such as seat belt and air bag to reduce the impact that the driver get during the accident This essay focuses on drunk driving issues, where the driver doesn’t have a responsibility while driving their vehicle. Two solutions are then offered and assessed from financial and practical perspectives. Alcohol is a chemical substance that disturb the central nervous system and may lessen the reaction time of the consumer up to 10% - 30% (Ahlers, 2013). The side effect of consuming alcohol is the contradiction to the requirement of skills for the driver that needs high concentration. Many driver ignore it and keep driving right after they have consumes some alcohol, this is called drunk driving. The driver usually drive in exceeding speed and unstable car movement. This behaviour frequently result in accident because the driver cannotShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Drunk Driving On The Road Of Driving1382 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is one of the most evil and deadly acts? Drunk-driving? Oh no! These two words together are uncordial behaviors. The crime of driving a vehicle or operating a motorized machine while under the influence of alcohol is totally against the law of the land, but some people still won’t stop. 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